George Vassilev

UC Berkeley
IAS 45
Prof. A. Karras
GSI J. Rosenzweig
11.26.2001

In the 10th century, while the Western Europeans shied away from the material world into the metaphysics of Christianity, the Arabs translated ancient Greek philosophy, history and science, further developed Mathematics and Astronomy, sailed the high seas and created outstanding masterpieces of art. At the base of their thriving civilization stood a system of belief that competed with Judaism and Christianity in its complexity but was certainly superior to them in achieving social stability and cultural prosperity. Islam was a uniting force that promoted excellence, peacefulness, and the attainment of the highest standards of knowledge and invention. During that early period of its development, Islam was a benefactor of the spread of civilization and many pagan and underdeveloped peoples desired to be associated with such a successful social order and to be under the protection of such powerful Islamic cities as Baghdad, Damascus, or Aleppo. At that time, the followers of the prophet Mohammed were not at all poised at converting multitudes of people to their religion. In fact, they were only concerned with pagans, whom they considered not to be "Kitab", Arabic for people of the Book. Jews and Christians were benevolently left alone for they already had the book of God's revelation, the Bible. As a prosperous society, Baghdad, did not wish to engage itself with the surrounding backward tribes, yet it would never deny other nations assistance. Certainly, it was quite often the case that pagan rulers in search of international recognition would request missions to be sent to their territories from Baghdad for the purposes of enlightening their people in the ways of Islam and the establishment of traditions of Islamic statesmanship. One such case was the mission of the courtier and diplomat, Ahmad Ibn Fadlan, who undertook a trip from Baghdad, "the city of peace" as he called it (Ibn Fadlan, 55), to the lands of the Volga Bulgars in present-day Russia in 921 CE passing through numerous barbarian lands inhabited by Turkic tribes, Khazars, Pechenegs, and Russ. Ibn Fadlan's accounts of this journey are an invaluable source of information for the study of the attitudes of highly developed Islamic states toward the barbarian world surrounding them, as well as for ethnographic facts about the peoples of Central Asia, which became historically significant in the later part of the Middle Ages, such as the Seljuk Turks, the precursors to the Ottoman Empire. Well into the 20th century Ibn Fadlan's book had only been available through fragments of the 12th century "Geographical Dictionary" by Jakut, made available to modern historiography in the 1820s by the Danes Janus Rasmussen and Christian Frenn. In 1935 a complete copy of Ibn Fadlan's book had been found in Iran and presented to the government of the then-Soviet Union for research. The text considered here is based on the latest translation made in 1992 in Bulgarian with cross-references to the Russian text, which displays certain ideological misinterpretations due to the prevailing political climate in Soviet Russia.

To provide a historical background to the period discussed, it is important to note that Islam has not always been a militant religion, or at least has not always been associated with the persecution of Christians and the assault on their faith. In fact, it was not until the Crusades to the Holy Land that the Muslims came into direct conflict with the Europeans. The ambitious Pope Gregory the 7th of Cluny wanted to consolidate all power over European territory in his hands and in 1073 he used the uniting cause of the salvation of the Christians in the lands conquered by the infidel Muslims to achieve that. Ironically, the Christians in Jerusalem were not in much need of rescue since they had their own fortified town within Jerusalem and were granted autonomy by the Muslims; in fact, people lived rather peacefully in Jerusalem. In 1095 a letter from the Byzantine emperor, Alexis Comnenus, prompted Pope Gregory's successor, Pope Urban II, to wage a full-blown Crusade against the Muslims. Much to the surprise of Alexis, a massive horde of 60,000 peasants, led by Peter the Hermit called at the gates of Constantinople on August 1st 1096, followed by the authorized crusaders that pillaged lands actually inhabited by Christians when they were transferred over the Bosphorus. They went to such great lengths in their horrendous endeavor that Rudolph of Caen recalled: "In Mahrad, our troops boiled pagan adults in cooking pots, they impaled children on spits and devoured them grilled." (Jones, Crusades) This sounded the fanfare of war.

In 1140 the Arabs led by the first warlord of the Islamic Holy War, Dzengi, rode against the Christians in Aleppo, then in Edessa and an aggressive Mohammedan counterattack was under way. A significant fact is that Dzengi was not an Arab, but a conquering Mongol Muslim that saw a suitable event to entrench his rule. This shows that the Arabs were probably not inclined to fight the Christians and that the reality of Jihad, a notion inherent in Islam, actually needed to be incited by the militant Mongol and Turkic tribes. The Jihad fundamentally changed the stance of Islam toward Christianity, and consequently toward the very role of itself in the world and the conviction that all means of spreading the faith were acceptable. But until the clash that loomed in the 12th century, the Muslim kingdoms of Baghdad, Damascus and Aleppo were pillars of civilization and tolerance that did not pursue forceful proselytizing. Baghdad was a center of learning, statesmanship, architectural wonders and a prosperous economy, even possessing a university.

In such a cultural setting came the narrative of the courtier Ahmad Ibn Fadlan, whose work shed light on this historical period and revealed a good deal about the people of Baghdad, and those of the surrounding barbarian lands, well into what is nowadays Central Russia. On his voyage, which set out on June 21st 921 CE from Baghdad, he encountered and described a multitude of peoples that he generally grouped in 4 categories. The Turkic tribes, the Bulgars, whom he identified as Slavs, the Russ and the Khazars. Each of these groups presented Ibn Fadlan with a unique culture which differed substantially from his own. He did not spare any criticism of certain practices of the peoples he encountered, but also lavishly applauded what he considered to be good customs. An attitude of cultural relativism would be too much to foresee in his work, but remarkably, the bias of his own cultural views did not manifest itself too forcefully or inappropriately.

As he traveled North of Baghdad, he first encountered a variety of non-Arab and Turkic peoples in Bukhara and Horezm to the South of the Aral sea. He remarked that the ruler of Bukhara, Nasr Ibn Ahmad, was a 16 or 17 year-old boy who had inherited the throne of his father at an even earlier age. Here, Fadlan first made any observations on the way of life of the people. The economy was agrarian and the currency that prevailed in all the lands he visited was the dirhem, a variety based on the Greek drahme, which had a murky economic value and appeared to be equal to the value of the metal it was made out of, most often copper.

Next he went to the land of Horezm, which was also a Muslim one. There, the ruler, Mohammad Ibn Iraq Horezm Shah, was negatively disposed to the young ruler of Bukhara. This suggests that there have been quarrels between Mohammedan peoples even at this early stage of the development of Islam as an international religion and as a politico-economic system. Ibn Fadlan once again discussed the currency, dirhem, which in Horezm took more forms and could be made of a variety of metals. Curiously, he mentioned that some of the dirhems were fake. This is an interesting proposition that comes to suggest that the use of currency was widespread so that people would associate wealth with the amount of coin they possess, and hence contrive the minting of fake coins. The use of coin was also shown in the preceding passage regarding Bukhara where it was said that dirhems were used for the dowry of brides. "Also, thus is purchased real estate, as well as the purchase of slaves." (Ibn Fadlan, 57) This statement, as simple as it is, makes clear several important points about the way of life of these Turkic tribes. First of all, it shows that the institution of marriage existed in some form and that it was considered, at least in part, to be an economic transaction, because of the use of the dowry. Secondly, land and real estate were also treated as marketable commodities in some sense, which probably meant that land could be distributed not only by means of the favor of the ruler, but could also be purchased.

Before the expedition left Horezm by boat on the river Jaihun, nowadays known as Emba, there was a quarrel involving one of Ibn Fadlan's company. Takin ad Turki, who had previously lived in Horezm, was accused of secret negotiations with the king of the Bulgars and the emir of Baghdad. Since the kingdom of Samarkand was closer to the kingdom of the Bulgars, the Horezmians and the Samarkandians believed that by virtue of this they should have negotiated the transaction. This probably comes to show that the lesser Islamic states have long been attempting to secure a good relationship and gain the favor of Baghdad, which at that time was the greatest Islamic center. A possible contemporary analogy of that position could be the desire of the countries of Southern and Eastern Europe for accession with the European Union and subsequently their painful attempts at political and economic reforms that would allow them to be accepted in the Union. These countries' governments are willing to do almost anything in order to gain the favor of the better-off Western European countries. This, apparently, is a pattern that has been repeated throughout history. The request of the king of the Volga Bulgars for an Islamic mission was a confirmation of the same stance: not merely a religious act, but a political one, carried out at a time when politics and religion were intertwined in an irrevocable unity. Thus, a mission from Baghdad was a formal acceptance of a way of life and a concept of statesmanship that granted security under the protection of the mighty Arabic Caliphate. This is a plausible explanation why the shah of Horezm was unhappy to hear that the Bulgars, in a kingdom farther to the North, had gained this favor before him. Throwing in a quick remark that the language of Horezm is rather squeaky and that "the Horezmians are crude people both in their speech and in their appearance" (Ibn Fadlan, 58), the Baghdadi seemed only too glad to board the ship to Al Jurjania.

What his expedition encountered in Al Jurjania was in several ways different from the countries previously visited. For one thing, it was incredibly cold and that certainly is something a citizen of Baghdad would not fail to notice. The narrative becomes dominated by his favorable opinion of the solidarity of the people in that harsh land. There were no beggars, also strangers and travelers could walk into a house (a hut, more so) to warm up and utter "Pakand", which means bread, and the hosts would readily provide it. Furthermore, Ibn Fadlan approved of the strict punishment of pederasty, as well as of adultery. However approving his tone was, he consistently had trouble accepting the uncleanliness of the people he observed throughout most of his voyage and the Al Jurjanians were no exception. The mission had to spend the winter in that land and after all the camels had died, the friendly locals equipped the expedition with more than they needed. Even though the river Jaihun had unfrosted, when they took off on March 4th 922, they thought they were in Zamharir, the part of Hell where there was great chill according to the Muslims.

As they moved into the steppe, the people of Al Guzz presented them with a discomforting lack of hospitality. Ibn Fadlan made a colorful observation of the Al Guzzians: "Their homes are spread here and there, depending on where they can lodge. Their condition is pathetic, worthy of pity. They could only be compared with roaming donkeys, not revering Allah, they do not consult their intellect." (Ibn Fadlan, 60) At first glance contradictory, the invocation of both religious faith and rationality shows an important concept of Islam that determines Ibn Fadlan's perspective in observing this foreign culture, the concept of Din. According to Professor Naquib Al Attas of the Institute of Islamic Thought in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Din is the way in which Muslims look at themselves and gain a sense of identity. Unlike the European dichotomy of the physical and the spiritual, the Islamic Din combines the two in an inseparable whole. The spiritual is implied in rational terms, hence God is not a problem of knowledge for the Muslims and there is no sense of tragedy in Islamic consciousness. There is no clash between the individual and society and no inner conflict. Ibn Fadlan proceeded to condone the practice of eating lice and abandoning the sick in the steppe and expressed his bafflement at the funeral rituals of the Al Guzzians that included the slaughter of many horses that would transport the deceased into the afterlife.

The last land the Baghdadi mission visited before reaching their final destination was Al Bashgard, which was situated in the territory of present-day Bashkiria. A significant issue that Ibn Fadlan brought up was a description of the pantheism of the people. There were 12 deities such as the Sun, the Winter, the Day, and even snakes and other animals. This display of both religious cosmism and totemism was an unusual one for the Muslim so after his impartial explanation of the religious system of Al Bashgard he affirmed that "Allah is the greatest, he sits the highest and is above the banter of the pagans, the infidels and the sinners." (Ibn Fadlan, 66)

Finally, after a great deal of travel, the mission reached its destination and Ibn Fadlan's observations changed almost completely. The Bulgars were obviously of a very different stock from the peoples encountered previously. Throughout the writing the Bulgars are identified as Slavs, which opposes the generally accepted views about the Protobulgarians of the 6th century CE and their subsequent migration to the Balkan Peninsula in the 7th century CE. Those that remained in the valley of the river Volga were obviously the same people, but due to their geopolitical location they saw it fit to adopt Islam. Baltauar, the king of the Bulgars, met the mission outside of his capital, the city of Bolgar and after an elaborate reception and a feast with all of the leaders of the Bulgar government, the letter from the caliph of Baghdad was presented. Apparently, it mentioned a sum of money that was to be sent to Baltauar per his request of funds for building fortifications and a mosque. The king was very displeased with the absence of the funds and even less pleased with Ibn Fadlan's explanation that the fundraising would take a while. However, the mission was gratefully accepted and the religious recognition of the Bulgars as Muslims was granted. Baltauar also cemented an agreement of protection against the ruler of Horezm in case of an attack. However, the main issue for him was the situation with the Khazars (whom he often referred to as Judeans) that he paid tribute to. The taxation within the country itself was rather democratic. The people did not owe anything to the government but a set amount of furs; all the produce of their labor was theirs to keep. However, the indebtedness to the Khazars strained the economy and made Baltauar eager to expedite the pact with Baghdad in hope that it will improve his situation. Faithful to the Islamic tradition of profound observation, Ibn Fadlan described the weather, the flora and even the night sky of the land of the Bulgars and appeared to be very pleased with the natural beauty of the place. Unable to depart from the mysticism of Mediaeval mentality, however, he foresaw a battle of titans in a twilight storm and described a gigantic snake the size of a big tree, as well as a giant man, of what was identified as the nationality of the White Russians, or Uisu as Fadlan called them, whose "fingers (were) bigger than a foot." (Ibn Fadlan, 75) The only observation of the administration of justice he made was in regard to murder. If a person killed someone else willingly, he would be sent to court, if he did so unwillingly, though, he would be buried alive and left at the mercy of Allah. As for the practice of slavery, the Baghdadi mentioned it as if it were a natural thing. He did not explain anything about the character of the relationship between the slaves and their owners and did not speak of the ways of acquiring slaves.

Led by his obvious curiosity and desire for adventure, Ibn Fadlan explored the Russians last, who appeared rather Viking-like in his narrative and then the Khazars, that were a Judaic people. Ibn Fadlan's writing prompted the novelist Michael Crichton to write a book based on the traveler's encounter with the Russians, whom he referred to as Northmen, for their apparent Viking heritage. However, the novel "The Eaters of the Dead", first published in the 1970s and the blockbuster John McTiernan film, "The 13th Warrior" released in 1999 and starring Antonio Banderas and Omar Shariff were very loosely connected to the actual historical presentation of Ibn Fadlan's narrative so they would not provide groundbreaking historiographical insight into the culture of the Russians. Indeed, there is nowadays evidence that a part of the Russian ethnic heritage comes from the Vikings of Scandinavia and not only from the Slav stock. The Khazars had synagogues and at least one town. When talking about the Russians, Fadlan concentrated on anthropological observations of their burial rituals, the weaponry they used and their religious totemism. The burial of a highly ranking Russ was quite a spectacle. After constructing a ritual ship, slaughtering sacrificial animals and the deceased's favorite wives the Russians set the ship ablaze and performed an elaborate ritual. On many accounts, the Russians reminded Ibn Fadlan of the unsanitary barbarian practices of nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples that he had previously observed. Several pages about the stay of Ibn Fadlan in Khazaria were added from the "Geographical Dictionary" by Jakut. An interesting act of statesmanship in the land of the Khazars was the practice of dynastic marriage of the king to the daughters of the rulers of rivaling states. He was said to have had 25 wives and sought to dominate his rivals by marrying their daughters, thus turning them into hostages. Also, the ruler had what we would nowadays call a term of office. Curiously, this mandate was 40 years and if the ruler "lived but one day longer, his subjects or those close to him dethrone him or kill him and say: He is already less reasonable and his decisions became less prudent." (Ibn Fadlan, 85)

This remarkable historical document has enriched in many ways our knowledge of the peoples of Central Asia, the nomads, the Slavs and the Scandinavian ancestors of the Russians. It is generally considered to be an accurate description of the state of affairs in the 10th century, which is confirmed by a multitude of other sources, including the Mediaeval encyclopaedia, "Created Wonders" by Najeeb Hamadani and the "Geographical Dictionary" by Jakut. Ibn Fadlan's narrative is the most comprehensive and systematic treatise on the subject known to contemporary historiography. The fact that this writing deals with societies existing long before the European Renaissance that possessed characteristics totally foreign to Western mentality, makes it so much more difficult to analyze, but so much more fascinating to explore. It reveals a geopolitical division of a few prosperous and highly civilized Islamic states and a multitude of backward nomadic or barbarian peoples that tried to align themselves with the powerful of the day. It also shows that Islam had an uplifting effect on the less developed peoples and served as a creator of national cohesion and a tradition of statesmanship. Nowadays, Islam is more readily associated with atavism and even fanatical ludditism but that is very much due to the antagonism with the Christian West from the 11th century onward and the subsequent development of mercantilism and capitalism, all concepts innately foreign to Mohammedan mentality. Until that point, powerful Islamic centers such as Baghdad, were the beacon for dispossessed and backward peoples and helped foster the development of civilization as we know it.



BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1. Boradjieva, L.M., Naumov, G., translators, Ibn Fadlan: Voyage to Volga Bulgaria, Arges Press, Sofia, 1992
in Bulgarian

2. Comite scientifique, Le Temps des Croisades, Credit Communal, Bruxelles, 1996

3. Crichton Michael, Eaters of the Dead, Ballantine Books, 1988

4. Jones Terry, host, Crusades, video, BBC, The History Channel, 1995, lib.# 8300

5. Krachkovskii, I.J., translator, The Voyage of Ibn Fadlan along the Volga, Academy of Sciences USSR, Leningrad, 1939
in Russian

6. McTiernan John, The 13th Warrior, video, Touchstone Pictures, 1999

7. Runciman, S., A History of the Crusades, Cambridge University Press 1951,Vol.1

8. Sardar Ziauddin, host, Faces of Islam, video, TV3 Sistem Televisyen Malaysia Berhad, lib. # 4086